Although narratology as an academic discipline has only recently been invented, people have been interested in how we tell stories for millennia (Plummer, 2012). Stories help us understand and make sense of the world around us. They can be personal but also social, collective, belonging to the group. We need stories in order to live a human life, construct, and reconstruct yesterday and tomorrow. They provide us with coherence and meaning and have the capability to turn chaos into order. They also play an important role universally, becoming road maps and key clues to unraveling cultures. On one hand stories can stimulate empathy, create connecting bonds with others, and develop dialogues, and on the other, they can raise challenges, critique, and provoke change.
It would not be possible to achieve a long-lasting change in social structures with the sole use of force and coercion, and without the support of ‘true believers’, who share an objective based on a common story (Harari, 2014). Both far-right and Islamist extremists seem to be aware of that and have been using stories to influence the public and make them act according to the principles of their ideological framework. As Julia Ebner wrote in her book (2017) studying extremism without studying stories is like studying the brain without studying neurons. Narratives have the potential to disseminate extreme ideologies. They serve as the connecting element between non-violent and violent forms of extremism and bridge the ideological spaces between far-right and Islamist extremism. The ex-English Defence League (EDL) community manager, which Ebner interviewed for her book said: ‘Radicalizing people was easy; I just had to tell better stories than the Establishment.’
Ebner (2017) identifies five key elements that contribute to the efficacy of their extremist narratives: simplicity, consistency, responsiveness, identification, and inspiration. Firstly, the simplicity of black-and-white narratives can bring comfort by eliminating the complexities and ambiguities of life. Extremists provide clear and simple answers to complex phenomena observed in our global environment (Ebner, 2017). People are often drawn to simple, binary answers for several reasons such as cognitive ease, certainty, and security, as well as emotional appeal. Complex issues can be difficult to understand and deal with. Binary answers offer a sense of cognitive ease because they provide clear solutions without the need for deep thought or analysis (Fiske & Taylor, 1984; Kahneman, 2011; Korteling et al., 2023) . Such dichotomy also provides a sense of certainty and security in an uncertain world (Fisher & Keil, 2018). It offers clear guidelines and directions, which can be comforting in times of confusion or chaos. Furthermore, simple answers often appeal to people’s emotions, offering straightforward narratives that resonate with their fears, frustrations, or desires. This emotional connection can make binary solutions more compelling than nuanced, complex ones. Although we attempt to structure our understanding of the world through rational analysis, we often rapidly and instinctively engage in emotional binary framing (Kahneman, 2011). Pejorative, fear-based binary framing of the other is the most protective Darwinist response we can have, which keeps us alert and cautious (Bishop, 2023). Evolutionarily derived fear triggers and the cognitive preference for dichotomy do not need to wait for sophisticated arguments.
Secondly, compelling stories are characterized by consistency, which is critical not only in maintaining a coherent and uniform narrative over time to build trust and credibility, but also in ensuring that actions align with the narrative to preserve legitimacy (Ebner, 2017). This consistency can sharply contrast with the often-observed inconsistency within established institutions. When mainstream groups fail to maintain narrative consistency or align their actions with their words, it can foster public distrust. In contrast, groups that maintain consistency can leverage these institutional failures, positioning themselves as more trustworthy or genuine alternatives, thereby attracting those disillusioned with the establishment.
Thirdly, responsiveness refers to the ability to address the grievances and aspirations of the population—issues often neglected by those in power (Ebner, 2017). Extremist narratives often exploit societal dissatisfaction presenting themselves as the solution to perceived injustices and promising radical change. By addressing the concerns of marginalized groups, extremists can gain support and legitimacy, further strengthening their narrative.
Additionally, the appeal of radical groups lies in creating a strong sense of belonging and a possibility of identification with other group members (Ebner, 2017). Homogeneity of the in-group is fostered through common language, customs, and symbols. The narratives often provoke empathy for certain protagonists and hatred for antagonists. For instance, the now archived, Facebook page of the German neo-Nazi terrorist group Oldschool Society, shows pictures of its members hugging each other and celebrating together.
Lastly, the capacity of extremist narratives to inspire action is critical. The successful stories create a desire to resolve a real or perceived conflict (Burke, 1989). Extremists often build on the narrative of victimhood and imply that solving the threat is only possible by eliminating the other, whether metaphorically or literally. The desired ‘happy end’ may involve the annihilation of a race, religion, or a social class, often expected after the ‘final battle’, the ‘inevitable war’, or the ‘final solution’ (Ebner, 2017). This is demonstrated in an extract from the Islamic State’s Dabiq magazine: “We target the crusaders, and we will eradicate and distinguish them, for there are only two camps: the camp of truth and its followers, and the camp of falsehood and its factions” (“A Call to Hijrah,” September 2014).
References
A Call to Hijrah. (September 2014). Dabiq.
Bishop, K. R. (2023). American Binary Thinking: Psychological Foundations, Religious Framing, and Media Reinforcement.
Burke, K. (1989). On symbols and society. University of Chicago Press.
Ebner, J. (2017). The rage: The vicious circle of Islamist and far-right extremism. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Fisher, M., & Keil, F. C. (2018). The Binary Bias: A Systematic Distortion in the Integration of Information. Psychological Science, 29(11), 1846-1858. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618792256
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1984). Social Cognition. In: Random House, New York.
Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Random House.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. macmillan.
Korteling, J. E., Paradies, G. L., & Sassen-van Meer, J. P. (2023). Cognitive bias and how to improve sustainable decision making. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1129835.
Plummer, K. (2012). A manifesto for stories: Critical Humanist notes for a narrative wisdom. In.